Read From File

To read from the file, you can use the open function to open the file. It opens it and returns a file object that users can use to read or modify the content of that file. The syntax is open(file_name, mode), the file_name is the name of the file you want to interact with, and the mode could be any of these:

• r read mode
• w write mode (Overwrites existing file)
• a append to the end mode
• b binary mod
  • There are other modes, but these are commonly used

File Content

Test1
Test2

Example

temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”, “r”) # Open the file “test_1.txt” in read mode (“r”)
print(temp_file.read()) # Read the entire contents of the file and print it
temp_file.close() # Close the file to free system resources

temp_file = open("test_1.txt","r")

print(temp_file.read())
temp_file.close()

Result

Test1
Test2

---

Read From File (Line by Line)

You can use the .readline method to read line by line

File Content

Test1
Test2

Example

temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”) # Open the file “test_1.txt” in read mode (default mode is “r”)
for line in temp_file.readlines(): # Read all lines into a list and iterate through each line
    print(line, end=””) # Print each line without adding extra newlines (end=””)
temp_file.close() # Close the file to free system resources

temp_file = open("test_1.txt")
for line in temp_file.readlines():
    print(line, end="")

temp_file.close()

Result

Test1
Test2

Or, you can use the .readlines method

Example

temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”) # Open the file “test_1.txt” in read mode (default “r”)
lines = temp_file.readlines() # Read all lines into a list called ‘lines’
for line in lines: # Iterate through each line in the list
    print(line, end=””) # Print each line without adding extra newlines
temp_file.close() # Close the file to free system resources

temp_file = open("test_1.txt")

lines = temp_file.readlines()
for line in lines:
    print(line, end="")

temp_file.close()

---

Write to File

To write, you can use the .write method

Example

temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”, “w”) # Open the file in write mode (“w”); creates the file if it doesn’t exist, or overwrites it if it exists
temp_file.write(“Test\n”) # Write the string “Test” followed by a newline to the file
temp_file.close() # Close the file to save changes and free resources
temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”, “r”) # Reopen the file in read mode (“r”)
print(temp_file.read()) # Read the entire file contents and print that
temp_file.close() # Close the file after reading

temp_file = open("test_1.txt","w")
temp_file.write("Test\n")
temp_file.close()

temp_file = open("test_1.txt","r")
print(temp_file.read())
temp_file.close()

Result

Test

---

Write to File (With User Input)

You can ask the user for input, then save that to a file

User Input

Hello World!

Example

temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”, “a+”) # Open the file in append and read mode (“a+”); creates file if it doesn’t exist
temp_user_input = input(“Enter text: “) # Prompt the user to enter text
temp_file.write(temp_user_input) # Append the user’s input to the end of the file
temp_file.close() # Close the file to save changes
temp_file = open(“test_1.txt”, “r”) # Reopen the file in read mode
print(temp_file.read()) # Read and print the entire contents of the file
temp_file.close() # Close the file after reading

temp_file = open("test_1.txt","a+")
temp_user_input = input("Enter text: ")
temp_file.write(temp_user_input)
temp_file.close()

temp_file = open("test_1.txt","r")
print(temp_file.read())
temp_file.close()

Result

Hello World!

---

Read\Write Without Close Method

The .close method is used to close the opened file (It’s a good practice to do that). If you do not want to use that, then use the with the statement, which will automatically close it when flow control leaves the with block

File Content

Test1
Test2

Example

with open(“test_1.txt”, “r”) as f: # Open the file “test_1.txt” in read mode; ‘with’ ensures it will be automatically closed
    print(f.read()) # Read the entire file content and print it

with open("test_1.txt","r") as f:
    print(f.read())

Result

Test1
Test2

---

Remove a File

There are different ways to delete a file, one of them is the use the remove function from the Miscellaneous operating system interfaces module (You need to import it first using import os).

User Input

Hello World!

Example

import os # Import the os module for interacting with the operating system
os.remove(“test_1.txt”) # Delete the file “test_1.txt” from the filesystem

import os
os.remove("test_1.txt")

Input

The input function is used to get input from the user in string data type (If the user enters [1,2,3], it will be "[1,2,3]" – it becomes a string, not a list)

Example

age = input(“Enter your age: “) # Prompt the user to enter their age; the input is returned as a string
print(“Your age is: “, age) # Print the age entered by the user

age = input("Enter your age: ")
print("Your age is: ", age)

Result

What is your age? 40
Your age is: 40

You can also have that in a loop

Example

temp_var = “” # Initialize an empty string variable
while temp_var != “exit”: # Continue looping until the user types “exit”
    temp_var = input(“Enter text: “) # Prompt the user to enter text
    print(“You entered: “, temp_var) # Print the text entered by the user

temp_var = ""
while temp_var != "exit":
    temp_var = input("Enter text: ")
    print("You entered: ", temp_var)

Result

Enter text: 10
You entered: 10
Enter text: test
You entered: test
Enter text: exit
You entered: exit

Also, you can check the length

Example

temp_var = “” # Initialize an empty string variable
while len(temp_var) != 4: # Repeat the loop until the user enters a string of length 4
    temp_var = input(“Enter a number: “) # Prompt the user to enter a number
    print(“You entered: “, temp_var) # Print the value entered by the user

temp_var = ""
while len(temp_var) != 4:
    temp_var = input("Enter a number: ")
    print("You entered: ", temp_var)

Result

Enter a number: a
You entered: a
Enter a number: bb
You entered: bb
Enter a number: ccc
You entered: ccc
Enter a number: dddd
You entered: dddd

---

Input (Type)

The input function returns a string, and you can check that using the type function

Example

temp_var = input(“Enter a number: “) # Prompt the user to enter a number; input is always returned as a string
print(type(temp_var)) # Print the type of temp_var

temp_var = input("Enter a number: ")
print(type(temp_var))

Result

Enter a number: 40
<class 'str'>

---

Input (Casting or Converting to int)

To cast, or convert a string into an int, you can use the int function

Example

temp_var = input(“Enter a number: “) # Prompt the user to enter a number; input is returned as a string
temp_var = int(temp_var) # Convert the input string to an integer
print(type(temp_var)) # Print the type of temp_var

temp_var = input("Enter a number: ")
temp_var = int(temp_var)
print(type(temp_var))

Result

Enter a number: 40
<class 'int'>

---

Input (Safe Casting or Converting)

Sometimes, functions that evaluate a string into code could be exploited, so it’s recommended that you use safe eval functions such as literal_eval from ast module (If needed)

Example

import ast # Import the Abstract Syntax Trees module (used here for safe evaluation)
temp_var = input(“Enter a float number: “) # Prompt the user to enter a number; input is returned as a string
temp_var = ast.literal_eval(temp_var) # Safely evaluate the input to its Python type (int, float, etc.)
print(type(temp_var)) # Print the type of temp_var

import ast
temp_var = input("Enter a float number: ")
temp_var = ast.literal_eval(temp_var)
print(type(temp_var))

Result

Enter a number: 40.0
<class 'float'>

---

Sanitizing Input

If you are expecting input that does not contain specific characters, you need to sanitize the input (Do not rely on the user to input something without the specific characters)

Example

temp_var = input(“Enter a string that does not contain @: “) # Prompt the user to enter a string
temp_var = temp_var.replace(“@”, “”) # Remove all occurrences of “@” from the string
print(temp_var) # Print the modified string

temp_var = input("Enter a string that does not contain @: ")
temp_var = temp_var.replace("@", "")
print(temp_var)

Result

Enter a number: Hello World!@
Hello World!

Search for a value

Some variable data type such as string, list, set and tuple allow you to search them by using the in keyword

Example

temp_list = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list with elements 1, 2, 3
temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
if 1 in temp_list: # Check if the number 1 exists in temp_list
    print(“Found number 1”) # If True, print this message
if “Hello” in temp_string: # Check if the substring “Hello” exists in temp_string
    print(“Found Hello”) # If True, print this message

temp_list = [1,2,3]
temp_string = "Hello World!"

if 1 in temp_list:
    print("Found number 1")

if "Hello" in temp_string:
    print("Found Hello")

Result

Found number 1
Found Hello

---

Check the length

You can use the len function to check the length

Example

mobile = “1112223333” # Create a string variable representing a mobile number
if len(mobile) == 10: # Check if the length of the mobile number is exactly 10
    print(“Mobile number length is correct”) # If True, print this message

mobile = "1112223333"

if len(mobile) == 10:
    print("Mobile number length is correct")

Result

Mobile number length is correct

---

Check if Numeric

You can either use the .isdecimal method or loop the string character and check each one individually

Example

mobile = “1112223333” # Create a string variable representing a mobile number
if len(mobile) == 10: # Check if the mobile number has exactly 10 characters
    print(“Mobile number length is valid”) # If True, print this message
    if mobile.isdecimal(): # Check if all characters in the string are decimal digits (0-9)
        print(“Mobile number pattern is valid”) # If True, print this message

mobile = "1112223333"

if len(mobile) == 10:
    print("Mobile number length is valid")
    if mobile.isdecimal():
        print("Mobile number pattern is valid")

Result

Mobile number length is valid
Mobile number pattern is valid

Or, you can loop each character and check if it’s number or not

Example

mobile = “1112223333” # Create a string variable representing a mobile number
numbers = “1234567890” # String containing all valid numeric digits
if len(mobile) == 10: # Check if mobile number has exactly 10 characters
    print(“Mobile number length is valid”) # Output message if length is valid
    for character in mobile: # Loop through each character in the mobile number
        if character in numbers: # Check if the character is a valid number
            print(character + ” is valid”) # Print a message for each valid character

mobile = "1112223333"
numbers = "1234567890"

if len(mobile) == 10:
    print("Mobile number length is valid")
    for character in mobile:
        if character in numbers:
            print(character + " is valid")

Result

Mobile number length is valid
1 is valid
1 is valid
1 is valid
2 is valid
2 is valid
2 is valid
3 is valid
3 is valid
3 is valid
3 is valid

---

Check by index

You can also use indexing to check a specific character or sub-string

Example

mobile = “111-222-3333” # Create a string variable representing a mobile number in the format XXX-XXX-XXXX
if len(mobile) == 12: # Check if the total length is 12 characters (including dashes)
    if mobile[3] == “-” and mobile[7] == “-“: # Check if the 4th and 8th characters are dashes
        if mobile[0:3].isdecimal() and mobile[4:7].isdecimal() and mobile[8:12].isdecimal(): # Check if the number parts are all digits: first three, middle three, last four
            print(“Mobile number is valid”) # If all conditions are met, print this message

mobile = "111-222-3333"

if len(mobile) == 12:
    if mobile[3] == "-" and mobile[7] == "-":
        if mobile[0:2].isdecimal() and mobile[4:6].isdecimal() and mobile[8:11].isdecimal():
            print("Mobile number is valid")

Result

Mobile number is valid

---

Regex

Regex, or regular expression, is a language for finding a particular string based on a search pattern.

• Characters
  • \d matches 0 to 9
    • \d\d\d\d with 1234567 returns 1234
    • \d+ with 1234567 returns 1234567
  • \w matches word character A to Z, a to z, 0 to 9, and _
    • \w\w with Hello! returns He, and ll
    • \w+ with Hello! returns Hello
  • \s matches white space character
  • . matches any character except line break
    • . with car returns c, a, and r
    • .* with car returns car
• Character classes
  
  • [ ] for matching characters within the brackets
    • [abcd] matches a, b, c, or d
    • [a-d] matches a, b, c, or d (The – means to)
    • [^abcd] matches anything except a, b, c, or d (The ^ means negated character class)
    • [^a-d] matches anything except a, b, c, or d (The - means to, and ^ means negated character class)
• Quantifiers
  • + one or more
    • [1-2] with 112233 returns 1, 1, 2, 2
    • [1-2]+ with 112233 returns 1122
  • * zero or more
    • 1*2* with 112233 returns 1122
  • {2} matches 2 times
    
    • 1{4} with 111111 returns 1111
• Boundaries
  • ^ start of string
  • $ end of string
• Normal
  • 123456 with 123456789 returns 123456
  • abcdef with abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz returns abcdef
    • Escape special characters using \

---

Importing Regex (re) Module

To use the regex module named re, you need to make it available to use by using the import statement

Example

import re # Import Python’s built-in regular expression (regex) module
print(dir(re)) # Print a list of all attributes, functions, and classes available in the ‘re’ module

import re
print(dir(re))

Result

['A', 'ASCII', 'DEBUG', 'DOTALL', 'I', 'IGNORECASE', 'L', 'LOCALE', 'M', 'MULTILINE', 'Match', 'Pattern', 'RegexFlag', 'S', 'Scanner', 'T', 'TEMPLATE', 'U', 'UNICODE', 'VERBOSE', 'X', '_MAXCACHE', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__', '__version__', '_cache', '_compile', '_compile_repl', '_expand', '_locale', '_pickle', '_special_chars_map', '_subx', 'compile', 'copyreg', 'enum', 'error', 'escape', 'findall', 'finditer', 'fullmatch', 'functools', 'match', 'purge', 'search', 'split', 'sre_compile', 'sre_parse', 'sub', 'subn', 'template']

---

Regex (.search)

You can use the .search method of re module to find a string based on regex pattern

Example

import re # Import the regular expression module
mobile = “111-222-3333” # Create a string variable representing a mobile number
if re.search(“\d\d\d-\d\d\d-\d\d\d\d”, mobile): # Search for the pattern XXX-XXX-XXXX using regex
    print(“Mobile number is valid”) # Print this message if the pattern matches

import re

mobile = "111-222-3333"

if re.search("\d\d\d-\d\d\d-\d\d\d\d",mobile):
    print("Mobile number is valid")

Result

Mobile number is valid

Indexing

You can slice a string using smart indexing [] and : or ::

Example

temp_string = “abcdefghijk” # Create a string variable with value “abcdefghijk”
print(temp_string[1:]) # Slice from index 1 to the end and print that
print(temp_string[2:6]) # Slice from index 2 up to (but not including) index 6 and print that
print(temp_string[::-1]) # Reverse the string using slicing and print that

temp_string = "abcdefghijk"

print(temp_string[1:])
print(temp_string[2:6])
print(temp_string[::-1])

Result

bcdefghijk
cdef
kjihgfedcba

---

Concatenation

You can concatenate strings using the + operator

Example

first = “1234” # Create a string variable named first with value “1234”
second = “5678” # Create a string variable named second with value “5678”
print(first + second) # Concatenate the two strings and print that

first = "1234"
second = "5678"

print(first + second)

Result

12345678

---

Replace a letter or sub-string

You can use the .replace method to replace a word or letter in the string. The .replace method has 3 parameters (old value, new value, count)

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.replace(“!”, “$”)) # Replace all occurrences of “!” with “$” and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.replace("!","$"))

Result

Hello World$

Or, you can replace a word

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.replace(“World!”, “Mike”)) # Replace the substring “World!” with “Mike” and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.replace("World!","Mike"))

Result

Hello Mike

Also, you can remove a word by replacing it with nothing

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.replace(“World!”, “”)) # Replace the substring “World!” with an empty string and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.replace("World!",""))

Result

Hello

---

Uppercase

You can use the .upper method to return a copy of the string in upper case

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.upper()) # Convert all characters in the string to uppercase and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.upper())

Result

HELLO WORLD!

---

Lowercase

You can use the .lower method to return a copy of the string in upper case

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.upper()) # Convert all characters in the string to lowercase and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.lower())

Result

hello world!

---

Split

You can use the .split method to split the string. The split method has 2 parameters (separator, max_split) and the result is a list

Example

temp_string = “Hello World!” # Create a string variable with value “Hello World!”
print(temp_string.split(” “)) # Split the string into a list using space as the separator and print that

temp_string = "Hello World!"

print(temp_string.split(" "))

Result

['Hello', 'World!']

---

Join

You can use the .join method to convert a list of strings into one single string

Example

temp_items = [“Hello”, “World”, “1”] # Create a list of strings
print(“,”.join(temp_items)) # Join all elements of the list into a single string, separated by “,” and print that

temp_items = ["Hello","World","1"]

print(",".join(temp_items))

Result

Hello,World,1

---

Find

You can use .find to return the index of the first occurrence if found; Otherwise, it returns -1

Example

temp_string = “0123456789” # Create a string variable with value “0123456789”
print(temp_string.find(“34”)) # Find the starting index of the substring “34” and print that

temp_string = "0123456789"

print(temp_string.find("34"))

Result

3

---

Count

You can use .count to return the number of occurrences if found; Otherwise, it returns 0

Example

temp_string = “1122334455” # Create a string variable with value “1122334455”
print(temp_string.count(“1”)) # Count how many times the substring “1” appears in the string and print that

temp_string = "1122334455"

print(temp_string.count("1"))

Result

2

---

String Class

When you assign a string to a variable, it will create an str object, the str open includes different methods like __str__ that returns the defined string

Example

temp_var = “test” # Create a variable named temp_var and assign it the string “test”
print(type(temp_var)) # Print the type of temp_var

temp_var = "test"
print(type(temp_var))

Result

<class 'str'>
['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__getnewargs__', '__getstate__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mod__', '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__rmod__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'capitalize', 'casefold', 'center', 'count', 'encode', 'endswith', 'expandtabs', 'find', 'format', 'format_map', 'index', 'isalnum', 'isalpha', 'isascii', 'isdecimal', 'isdigit', 'isidentifier', 'islower', 'isnumeric', 'isprintable', 'isspace', 'istitle', 'isupper', 'join', 'ljust', 'lower', 'lstrip', 'maketrans', 'partition', 'removeprefix', 'removesuffix', 'replace', 'rfind', 'rindex', 'rjust', 'rpartition', 'rsplit', 'rstrip', 'split', 'splitlines', 'startswith', 'strip', 'swapcase', 'title', 'translate', 'upper', 'zfill']

Custom Example

class string(): # Define a class named string
    def __init__(self, var): # Constructor method, called when creating a new object
        self.var = var # Store the argument var in the instance variable self.var
    def __str__(self): # Define the string representation for printing
        return “{} __str__”.format(self.var) # Return the string with “__str__” appended
    def __eq__(self, other): # Define equality comparison for string objects
         if isinstance(other, string): # Check if other is also an instance of string
            return (self.var == other.var) # Compare the stored values
         return False # If other is not a string object, return False
print(string(“test”) == string(“test”)) # Compare two string objects and print that

class string():
    def __init__(self, var):
        self.var = var

    def __str__(self):
        return "{} __str__".format(self.var)

    def __eq__(self, other):
         if isinstance(other, string):
            return (self.var == other.var)
         return False

print(string("test") == string("test"))

Result

True

Dictionary

A dict is a data type that stores a sequence of key:value pairs (a key is associated with a value). Keys have to be immutable and cannot be duplicated. Notice that dict and set use the same syntax {} . A dict will have key:value pairs, whereas a set, will only have values. Dictionaries are also known as associative arrays or hash tables.

Example

dict_1 = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with key-value pairs
set_1 = {“value_1”, “value_2”} # Create a set with two unique values
print(type(dict_1), “=”, dict_1) # Print the type of dict_1 and its contents
print(type(set_1), “=”, set_1) # Print the type of set_1 and its contents

dict_1 = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}
set_1 = {"value_1","value_2"}

print(type(dict_1), "=", dict_1)
print(type(set_1), "=", set_1)

Result

<class 'dict'> = {'key_1': 'value_1', 'key_2': 'value_2'}
<class 'set'> = {'value_2', 'value_1'}

---

Structuring Data

Dictionaries are very powerful – Let’s say that following is a list of users in a company:

• Jim drives a Toyota Tacoma 2010, and he is 44 years old
• Sara drives a Ford F-150 2021, and she is 31 years old

We can have that organized into a dict

{
 "Users": {
 "Jim": {
 "car": "Toyota Tacoma 2010",
 "age": 44
 },
 "Sara": {
 "car": "Ford F-150 2021",
 "age": 31
 }
 }
}

Or, we can structure that in a list of dictionaries

[
 {
 "name": "Jim",
 "car": "Toyota Tacoma 2010",
 "age": 44
 },
 {
 "name": "Sara",
 "car": "Ford F-150 2021",
 "age": 31
 }
]

Or, more structured (The more structured, the easier to search or analyze)

[
 {
 "name": "Jim",
 "car": {
 "model": "Tacoma",
 "make": "Toyota",
 "year": 2010
 },
 "age": 44
 },
 {
 "name": "Sara",
 "car": {
 "model": "F-150",
 "make": "Ford",
 "year": 2021
 },
 "age": 31
 }
]

---

Accessing Values

You can access a value by its key. If you have a dict named temp_dict that contains {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}, then you can access the value_1 by using key_1 as temp_dict["key_1"] and so on.

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
print(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Access the value associated with the key “key_1” and print it

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

print(temp_dict["key_1"])

Result

value_1

Or you can use the .get method

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
print(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Access the value associated with the key “key_1” using the method .get and print it

temp_dict= {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}
print(temp_dict.get("key_1"))

Result

value_1

---

Get All Keys

To get the keys of a dict, you can use the .keys method

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
print(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Print all temp_dict keys

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

print(temp_dict.keys())

Result

dict_keys(['key_1', 'key_2'])

---

Get All Values

To get the values of a dict, you can use the .values method

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
print(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Print all temp_dict values

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}
print(temp_dict.values())

Result

dict_values(['value_1', 'value_2'])

---

Add or Update key:value Pair

You can use the update method to add a new pair or update a current pair. Remember that a dict cannot have duplicate keys. So, if you use an existing key, the value will be updated. Otherwise, a new pair will be added to the dict

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
temp_dict.update({“key_1”: “new_value”}) # Update the value of “key_1” to “new_value”
print(temp_dict) # Print the updated dictionary
temp_dict.update({“key_3”: “value_3”}) # Add a new key-value pair “key_3”: “value_3” to the dictionary
print(temp_dict) # Print the updated dictionary

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

temp_dict.update({"key_1":"new_value"})print(temp_dict)

temp_dict.update({"key_3":"value_3"})print(temp_dict)

Result

{'key_1': 'new_value', 'key_2': 'value_2'}
{'key_1': 'new_value', 'key_2': 'value_2', 'key_3': 'value_3'}

---

Modify a value by its Key

You can use the assignment statement = with the value corresponding key

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
temp_dict[“key_1”] = “new_value” # Update the value of “key_1” to “new_value”
print(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Access and print the updated value of “key_1”

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

temp_dict["key_1"] = "new_value"
print(temp_dict["key_1"])

Result

new_value

---

Length

You can use the len function, which will return the number of keys

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
print(len(temp_dict)) # Print the number of key-value pairs in the dictionary

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

print(len(temp_dict))

Result

2

---

Delete a key:value Pair

To delete a key:value pair, use the del function with the key

Example

temp_dict = {“key_1”: “value_1”, “key_2”: “value_2”} # Create a dictionary with two key-value pairs
del(temp_dict[“key_1”]) # Delete the key-value pair with key “key_1” from the dictionary
print(temp_dict) # Print the updated dictionary

temp_dict = {"key_1":"value_1","key_2":"value_2"}

del(temp_dict["key_1"])print(temp_dict)

Result

{'key_2': 'value_2'}
new_value

---

Pass By Reference

A dict is an immutable objects are passed by reference to function

def change_value(param_in): # Define a function that takes one parameter called param_in
    param_in.update({2: “test”}) # Update the dictionary by adding a new key-value pair 2: “test”
var = {1: “test”} # Create a dictionary with one key-value pair 1: “test”
print(“Value before passing: “, var) # Print the dictionary before calling the function
change_value(var) # Call the function; the dictionary is modified inside the function
print(“Value after passing: “, var) # Print the dictionary after the function call

Example

def change_value(param_in):
    param_in.update({2:"test"})

var = {1:"test"}

print("Value before passing: ", var)
change_value(var)
print("Value after passing: ", var)

Result

Value before passing:  [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Value after passing:  [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 99]

List

A list is a data type that stores multiple\any data types in an ordered sequence. It is mutable and one of the most used data types in Python. You can store integers, floats, strings, and so on.

Example

temp_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] # Create a list named temp_list containing the numbers 1 through 5
print(temp_list) # Print the entire list

temp_list = [1,2,3,4,5]

print(temp_list)

Result

[1,2,3,4,5]

The following snippet is a list that uses multiple data types

Example

print([1, {1}, (1, 2), “Hello”, 2.9]) # Print a list containing different data types

print([1,{1},(1,2),"Hello",2.9])

Result

[1, {1}, (1, 2), 'Hello', 2.9]

---

Indexing

Indexing means accessing any item inside the list by using its index. If you have a list named listOfstrings that contains ["a","b","c"], then listOfstrings[0] represents the first item. So, listOfstrings[0] is equal to a, listOfstrings[1] is equal to b, and listOfstrings[2] is equal to c.

Example

listOfstrings = [“a”, “b”, “c”] # Create a list named listOfstrings containing three letters
print(listOfstrings[0]) # Print the first element of the list (a)
print(listOfstrings[1]) # Print the second element of the list (b)
print(listOfstrings[2]) # Print the third element of the list (c)

listOfstrings = ["a","b","c"]

print(listOfstrings[0])
print(listOfstrings[1])
print(listOfstrings[2])

Result

a
b
c

You can use a smart index to access different elements inside lists, [-1] will return the last item inside the list

Example

temp_list = [“a”,”b”,”c”] # Create a list named temp_list containing three letters
print(temp_list[-1]) # Print the last item

listOfstrings = ["a","b","c"]

print(listOfstrings[-1])

Result

c

Or, you can use [-2] will return the second-to-last element of the list

Example

temp_list = [“a”,”b”,”c”] # Create a list named temp_list containing three letters
print(temp_list[-2]) # Print the second-to-last element

listOfstrings = ["a","b","c"]

print(listOfstrings[-2])

Result

b

---

Modify an item inside a list

You can modify any item inside lists because they are mutable.

Example

listOfitems = [“a”, “b”, “c”] # Create a list named listOfitems with three elements
listOfitems[0] = “aa” # Change the first element from “a” to “aa”
listOfitems[1] = 2022 # Change the second element from “b” to 2022 (integer)
print(listOfitems) # Print the updated list

listOfitems = ["a","b","c"]

listOfitems[0] = "aa"
listOfitems[1] = 2022
print(listOfitems)

Result

['aa', 2022, 'c']

---

Duplicates

A list can have duplicates, whereas a set cannot have duplicates

Example

listOfitems = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named listOfitems with elements 1, 2, 3
listOfitems[1] = 1 # Change the second element (index 1) from 2 to 1
listOfitems[2] = 1 # Change the third element (index 2) from 3 to 1
print(listOfitems) # Print the updated list → Output: [1, 1, 1]

listOfitems = [1,2,3]

listOfitems[1] = 1
listOfitems[2] = 1
print(listOfitems)

Result

[1, 1, 1]

---

Loop through a list

You can loop through a list in a few ways, and you can use the for statement (Remember to indent after the for statement)

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
for item in temp_items: # Loop through each element in the list
    print(item) # Print the current element (item) in each iteration

temp_items = [1,2,3]

for item in temp_items:
    print(item)

Result

1
2
3

Or, if you do not want to indent, you can do

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
for item in temp_items:print(item): # Loop through each element in the list, print the current element (item) in each iteration

temp_items = [1,2,3]

for item in temp_items:print(item)

Result

1
2
3

---

Length

To get the length of a list, you can use the len function, or you can look through the items and increase a counter value

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
print(len(temp_items)) # Print the size of the list

temp_items = [1,2,3]

print(len(temp_items))

Result

3

---

Add item

To add an item to a list, you can use .append method

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
temp_items.append(4) # Add the element 4 to the end of the list using append()
print(temp_items) # Print the updated list

Example

temp_items = [1,2,3]

temp_items.append(4)
print(temp_items)

Result

[1, 2, 3, 4]

---

Remove item by Value

To remove an item inside a list, you can use .remove method. This method will remove an item by value

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
temp_items.remove(2) # Remove number 2 from the list
print(temp_items) # Print the updated list

temp_items = [1,2,3]

temp_items.remove(2)
print(temp_items)

Result

[1, 3]

---

Remove item by Index

To remove an item inside a list, you can use del statement. This statement will remove an item by index, but you will need to use [index]

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
del temp_items[1] # Remove number 2 from the list by index
print(temp_items) # Print the updated list

temp_items = [1,2,3]

del temp_items[1]
print(temp_items)

Result

[1, 3]

---

Clear a list

To remove all items from a list, you can use the .clear method

Example

temp_items = [1, 2, 3] # Create a list named temp_items with elements 1, 2, 3
temp_items.clear() # Clear all the items from the list
print(temp_items) # Print the updated list

temp_items = [1,2,3]

temp_items.clear()
print(temp_items)

Result

[]

---

Pass By Reference

List is an immutable objects are passed by reference to function

Example

def change_value(param_in): # Define a function that takes one parameter called param_in
    param_in.append(99) # Append the number 99 to the list param_in (modifies the original list)
var = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] # Create a list variable var with initial values
print(“Value before passing: “, var) # Print the list before calling the function
change_value(var) # Call the function and pass var; the list is modified inside the function
print(“Value after passing: “, var) # Print the list after the function call; shows the updated list

def change_value(param_in):
    param_in.append(99)

var = [0,1,2,3,4,5]

print("Value before passing: ", var)
change_value(var)
print("Value after passing: ", var)

Result

Value before passing:  [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Value after passing:  [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 99]

Function Structure

Function is a reusable block of code that has 2 parts:

1. A def statement that defines the function name – E.g. def example_1(): or def example(param_in):
2. Function body that contains a block of code that will be executed when the function is called

The following snippet will declare a function, but it won’t execute it:

Example

def example_1(): # Define a function named example_1
    temp_val = 10 # Create a local variable temp_val and assign it the value 10
    print(temp_val) # Print the value of temp_val when the function is called

def example_1():
    temp_val = 10
    print(temp_val)

Result

If you want to execute\call it, use example_1() somewhere else without def statement:

Example

def example_1(): # Define a function named example_1
    temp_val = 10 # Create a local variable temp_val and assign it the value 10
    print(temp_val) # Print the value of temp_val when the function is called

example_1(): # Call the function to execute its code

def example_1():
    temp_val = 10
    print(temp_val)

example_1()

Result

10

---

Function

You can define a function using the def statement, followed by the function’s name, then (): and the rest have to be indented (spaces or tabs). To call the function, use the function name + ().

Example

def temp_function(): # Define a function named temp_function that takes no parameters
    print(“What’s up”) # Print the message “What’s up” when the function is called

temp_function() # Call the function to execute its code

def temp_function():
    print("What's up")

temp_function()

Result

What's up

Also, you can define a function that takes arguments using the def statement, followed by the function’s name, then add your parameters inside (): and the rest has to be indented (spaces or tabs). To call the function, use the function name + the arguments inside().

Example

def temp_function(param): # Define a function named temp_function with one parameter called param
    print(param) # Print the value passed into param when the function is called

temp_function(“What’s up”) # Call the function and pass the string “What’s up” as an argument

def temp_function(param):
    print(param)

temp_function("What's up")

Result

What's up

---

Functions Arguments & Parameters

To pass arguments to a function E.g. Tim, declare a function and add parameters inside the parentheses what_is_your_name(first_param):

Example

def what_is_your_name(first_param): # Define a function that takes one parameter called first_param
    print(“You passed”, first_param) # Print the message along with the value passed to the function

what_is_your_name(“Tim”) # Call the function with a string
what_is_your_name(1) # Call the function with an integer
what_is_your_name([“Nancy”, 2]) # Call the function with a list containing a string and an integer

def what_is_your_name(first_param):
    print("You passed", first_param)

what_is_your_name("Tim")
what_is_your_name(1)
what_is_your_name(["Nancy",2])

Result

You passed Tim
You passed 1
You passed ['Nancy', 2]

---

Multiple Arguments & Parameters

You can pass multiple arguments to a function if a function is declared with multiple parameters. You cannot declare a function with duplicate parameters; they must be unique. E.g. you declared def sayFirstLast(first, last): that has first and last as parameters and prints(first, last) in the body.

Example

def sayFirstLast(first, last): # Define a function with two parameters: first and last
    print(first, last) # Print the values of first and last separated by a space

sayFirstLast(“Dennis”,”Smith”) # Call the function with first=”Dennis” and last=”Smith”
sayFirstLast(“Sara”,”Mars”) # Call the function with first=”Sara” and last=”Mars”

def sayFirstLast(first, last):
    print(first, last)

sayFirstLast("Dennis","Smith")
sayFirstLast("Sara","Mars")

Result

Dennis Smith
Sara Mars

---

Re-declaring Functions

You can declare or re-declare a function using the same def statement. If you have a function named say_hello() that prints Hello, you can re-declare again and change Hello to Hi (Because Python executes code line by line)

Example

def say_hello(): # Define a function named say_hello
    print(“Hello”) # Print “Hello” when the function is called

say_hello() # Call the first version of say_hello

def say_hello(): # Redefine the function say_hello (overwrites the previous one)
    print(“Hi”) # Print “Hi” when the new function is called

say_hello() # Call the new version of say_hello 

def say_hello():
    print("Hello")

say_hello()
def say_hello():
    print("Hi")

say_hello()

Result

Hello
Hi

---

Function Return

If you want to return a value from a function, use the return statement. Let’s say that you have a function named multiply_by_4 that multiplies any number you pass to it (It does not output the number); you can get the result using the return statement.

Example

def say_hello(param_1): # Define a function that takes one parameter called param_1
    return param_1 * 4 # Return the value of param_1 multiplied by 4

returned_value = say_hello(10) # Call the function with 10; the result (10*4=40) is stored in returned_value
print(returned_value) # Print the value stored in returned_value → Output: 40
print(say_hello(100)) # Call the function with 100; returns 100*4=400
print(say_hello(say_hello(1))) # Nested call: Inner say_hello(1) returns 1*4 = 4, outer say_hello(4) returns 4*4 = 16

def say_hello(param_1):
    return param_1 * 4

returned_value = say_hello(10)print(returned_value)
print(say_hello(100))
print(say_hello(say_hello(1)))

Result

40
400
16

---

Empty Function

A function with an empty block will cause an error. E.g. IndentationError: expected an indented block. To write an empty function, you can use the pass statement in the body.

def empty_function(): # Define a function named empty_function that does nothing
    pass # pass is a placeholder; it allows the function to exist without any action

empty_function() # Call the function; nothing happens because it contains only pass

Example

def empty_function():
    pass

empty_function()

Result

---

Function Overloading

You can use the function overloading technique to define multiple functions with the same name but taking different arguments

Example

from functools import singledispatch # Import singledispatch to create a function that behaves differently based on input type

@singledispatch
def temp_function(param_in): # Define the generic function for types that don’t have a specific handler
    print(“Other:”, param_in) # Default behavior for unregistered types

@temp_function.register(int) # Register a special behavior for int type
def _(param_in):                      
    print(“Integer:”, param_in) # Print “Integer:” followed by the value if param_in is an int

@temp_function.register(str) # Register a special behavior for str type
def _(param_in):
    print(“String:”, param_in) # Print “String:” followed by the value if param_in is a string

temp_function(1) # Call with an int
temp_function(“Test”) # Call with a string
temp_function({1,2,3}) # Call with a set

from functools import singledispatch

@singledispatch
def temp_function(param_in):
    print("Other:", param_in)

@temp_function.register(int)
def _(param_in):
    print("Integer:", param_in)

@temp_function.register(str)
def _(param_in):
    print("String:", param_in)

temp_function(1)
temp_function("Test")
temp_function({1,2,3})

Output

Integer: 1
String: Test
Other: {1, 2, 3}

---

Control Flow

Control Flow in Python refers to the order in which the statements and instructions in a Python program are executed. By default, Python executes code sequentially from top to bottom, but control flow structures allow you to make decisions, repeat actions, or change the execution path based on conditions. The main control flow tools in Python include:

---

Logical Expression

Logical Expression is a statement that can either be true or false. The following are some of the comparison operators:

1 > 2 is 1 bigger than 2 (Result is False)
1 < 2 is 1 smaller than 2 (Result is True)
1 == 2 is 1 equal to 2 (Result is False)
1 != 2 is 1 not equal to 2 (Result is True)
1 => 2 is 1 is equal or bigger than 2 (Result is False)
1 <= 2 is 1 is equal or smaller than 2 (Result is True)

Example

if 100 > 99: # Condition: if 100 is greater than 99 (True)
    print(“Good!”) # Since the condition is True, print “Good!”

if 100 > 99:
    print("Good!")

Result

Good!

---

Logical Operators

Logical Operators are used to connect\combine multiple logical expressions. The following are some of the logical operators:

1 == 1 and 2 == 2 is True because both statement are True
1 == 1 and 1 == 2 is False because only one statement is True
1 == 1 or 1 == 2 is True one of the statements is True
1 == 2 or 1 == 2 is False because neither statements is True

Example

if 100 > 99 and 99 == 99: # Both conditions must be True for the code inside to execute
    print(“Good!”) # Both conditions are True, so “Good!” is printed

if 100 > 99 and 99 == 99:
    print("Good!")

Result

Good!

---

if Statement

if keyword executes a block of code when a logical condition is met. if statement is one of the most well-known statement types. The if statement usually ends with :, and the block of code after the if a statement is indented.

Example

if 1 == 1: # Condition evaluates to True
    print(“Good!”) # Since the condition is True, print “Good!”

if 1 == 1:
    print("Good!")

Result

Good!

Or, you can do that without indentation

Example

if True: print(“Good!”)  # Condition evaluates to True, since the condition is True, print “Good!”

if True:print("Good!")

Result

Good!

---

if … elif Statement

if … elif keywords are used to check for multiple logical conditions.

Example

temp_value = 1 # Assign the value 1 to the variable temp_value
if temp_value == 1: # If temp_value equals 1
    print(“Value is 1”) # Print this message
elif temp_value == 2: # Otherwise, if temp_value equals 2
    print(“Value is 2”) # Print this message
elif temp_value == 3: # Otherwise, if temp_value equals 3
    print(“Value is 3”) # Print this message

temp_value = 1

if temp_value == 1:
    print("Value is 1")
elif temp_value == 2:
    print("Value is 2")
elif temp_value == 3:
    print("Value is 3")

Result

Value is 1

Now, change temp_value to 2 and try again

Example

temp_value = 2 # Assign the value 2 to the variable temp_value
if temp_value == 1: # If temp_value equals 1
    print(“Value is 1”) # Print this message
elif temp_value == 2: # Otherwise, if temp_value equals 2
    print(“Value is 2”) # Print this message
elif temp_value == 3: # Otherwise, if temp_value equals 3
    print(“Value is 3”) # Print this message

temp_value = 2

if temp_value == 1:
    print("Value is 1")
elif temp_value == 2:
    print("Value is 2")
elif temp_value == 3:
    print("Value is 3")

Result

Value is 2

---

if … else Statement

if … else keywords are used to check for one logical condition, if not, then execute the block of code after the else statement

Example

if 1 == 2: # Condition is False
    print(“Value is 1”) # This line is skipped because the condition is False
else: # Otherwise
    print(“Value is 2”) # Since the 1 == 2 condition is False, this line is executed

if 1 == 2:
    print("Value is 1")
else:
    print("Value is 2")

Result

Value is 2

---

for Statement

for keyword is used to iterate over a sequence (list, tuple, set, dict or, string) and executes a block of code every iteration. The for statement usually ends with :, and the block of code after the for a statement is indented.

Example

for item in range(5): # range(5) generates numbers 0,1,2,3,4
    print(item) # Print the current value of item in each iteration

for item in range(5):
    print(item)

Result

0
1
2
3
4

Or, you can do that without indentation

Example

for item in range(5):print(item) # range(5) generates numbers 0,1,2,3,4, then print the current value of item in each iteration

for item in range(5):print(item)

Result

0
1
2
3
4

---

while statement

while keyword is used to repeat executing a block of code as long as a condition is met. The while statement usually ends with :, and the block of code after the while a statement is indented.

Example

counter = 0 # Initialize a counter variable to 0
while counter < 5: # Continue looping while counter is less than 5
    print(counter, “is less than 5”) # Print the current value of counter and message
    counter = counter + 1 # Increment counter by 1 in each iteration

counter = 0

while counter < 5:
    print(counter, "is less than 5")
    counter = counter + 1

Result

0 is less than 5
1 is less than 5
2 is less than 5
3 is less than 5
4 is less than 5

---

break statement

break keyword is used to break for or while loop

Example

while True: # Start an infinite loop
    break # Immediately exit the loop
    print(“Looping…”) # This line will never run because break exits the loop first

while True:
    break
    print("Looping...")

Result

---

Nested statements

You can nest statements (Remember to indent when you nest)

Example

for item in range(5): # Loop through numbers from 0 to 4
    if item == 2: # Check if the current item equals 2
        print(“Item”, item, “Found!”) # Print the item 2
        print(“Breaking the loop”, item) # Print a message before breaking
        break # Exit the loop immediately

for item in range(5):
    if item == 2:
        print("Item", item, "Found!")
        print("Breaking the loop", item)
        break

Result

Item 2 Found!
Breaking the loop 2